B.pharm Important topic

       ✯Suppositories✯ ★ A unit solid dosage form of medicament meant for insertion into body cavity other than mouth is known as suppositories. ★ It can be inserted into rectum ( rectal suppositories)  vagina ( vaginal  suppositories) , urethra ( urethral suppositories). ★ It dissolve or melt at body temperature. ★ After melting or dissolution it produces systemic and local effect. ★ The medicament is incorporated into the suppositories bases. ★ Suppositories are available in a variety of shapes , sizes and weight.

       ✯ Prescription ✯ ★ The prescription   is one of the most important therapeutic transaction between physician and patient. ★  Prescription is a written order from a registered medical practical to pharmacist for patient. ★ The prescription also include the direction for the patient regarding the more of administration of drugs. ★ Prescription means an order to take medicine. Prescription are made for three categories of drugs-; 1. Over the counter drugs (OTC) -; ★ Drugs which can be despenced to patient without the prescription. Example-; Paracetamol tablet, vicks 2. Prescription and legend drugs-; ★ The drugs which may not be dispensed by a pharmacist to patient without prescription. Example-; Sleeping pils( Alphrazolm) , CNS etc 3. Controlled drugs -;  ★ Along with prescription these drugs , require Additional safe good for storage, both the state and federal government agencies genrate regulation regarding these drugs . Parts of prescription-;...

           ✯Titration✯  "  Titration is a technique used in analytical chemistry to determine concentration of unknown solution by using solution of known concentration. " ★ solution of known concentration is known as titrant. ★ Solution of unknown concentration is known as analyte or titrand. Precipitation titration-; • ppt titration is a type of titration which involves the formation of pricipital during the titration techniques . • In ppt titration titrant react with analyte and forms an insoluble substance called precipitate It continuous fill the last amount of analyte is consumed. It is used to determine chloride by using silver ions.    Types / method 1. Volhard's method-; • This method was 1st given by German chemist"  Jawb Volhard's " in 1874. • This method involves the determination of halides ( F, Cl,Br and I) ions , anions like phosphate chromate in acidic medium by using silver ions. • In this method 1st analyte ( Cl ) ...

☞Gravimetric analysis☜ Principle and basic Steps-;  ★ Gravimetric analysis is based on conversion of ions , or elements into a pure & stable compound after a precipitation reaction. ★ Formed precipitation can be directly weighed & quantity. Example-;  BaClշ    +     HշSo４     →      BaSo４    +   2HCl Analyte.      Precipitating.     Precipitate                          Agent ★ Analyte solution will be taken. ★ Analyte will be precipitated by using suitable precipitation agent. ★ Precipitate will be pure & stable compound. ★ Precipitated compound will be filtered, dried & weighed. % of analyte= wt of precipitate × gravimetric factor × 100 / wt. Of sample Gravimetric factor = atomic mass of Ba๋ ๋๋ /atomic mass of BaSO4 Limitations of precipitation-; ★ Precipitated compound must be converted ...

   ✯Complexometric titration✯ Methodology -; • Titration of 0.1 NaCl by using 0.1N AgNOვ in the presence of indicator . ( 5 % solution) in conical flask. • At the end point reddish brown ppt. Is obtained. • Reading is taken from burette & calculate the concerntration of unknown sample.  Application of precipitation titration-; • It is used for halide ion solution. • It is used to measure salt content in food beverage & water.    Complexometric titration-; • Those volumetric titration or analysis in which the end point is indicated by a coloured complex are known as complexometric titration. • It is known as chelatometry. In this type of titration on indicator is used which is capable of producing clear colour in titration which indicates end point of the titration.

    ✯Conductometry✯  • Conductometry is based on the principle of determination of change in conductivity. • Change in the conductance is due to replacement of ions with each other. • Ionic conductivity is different for different ions. Conductance-;  • Flow of electricity through electrolyte solution Due to migration a ions by applying potential differences between two electrode. Electrode -;  a. Anode ( positively charge , attract anions negative ions) b. Cathode ( negatively charge attract, cation i.e. + ve ions) It is indicated by G.                        G= 1/R Specific conductance-; • It is reciprocal of specific resistance.                 R ∝ l/ a               R= ρ×l/a  ( If l= 1m & a= 1m²)---- eq- 1                R= ρ→ specific resistance Equivalence conductance-; • The ...

Non-aqueous titration Introduction-;  Most of the Titration are performed in the aqueous media means water is used as solvent. There may be difficulty if reactant is insoluble in water, or reactant is reactive with water or the analyte is either too weak acid or base. " Non - aqueous titration refers to a type of titration in which the analyte substance is dissolved in a solvent which does not contain water" . Types of solvent-; The solvent are classified into 4 groups— 1. Protogenic solvent 2. Protophillic solvent 3. Amphoteric solvent 4. Aprotic solvent 1. Protogenic solvent-; • These are acidic solvent which readily do not proton and are used to enhance the basicity of weak base . Example- Sulphuric acid, acetic acid, formic acid etc. 2.Protophillic solvent-; • These solvent are basic in nature , possessing a high affinity for proton , these enhances the acidity of weak acids. Example- Ammonia, pyridine etc . 3. Amphoteric solvent-; • These solvent have properties which ar...

          ✯Limit test✯ • Limit test for heavy metal can be performed by following methods— (1.) Method A-;  • This method use for the substance which gives clear colourless solution under specific conditions. Principle-; • Limit test of heavy metal is based on the reaction of metallic impurities with hydrogen sulphide in acidic medium to form heavy metal sulphide which is brownish colour solution. • Metals that response to this test are lead , mercury, silver , bismuth , tin, cadmium, copper and molybdenum. Procedure-; • Preparation of test sample and standard sample. Observation-; • The colour produce in sample solution should not be greater than standard solution of colour produced in sample is less than the standard sample solution pass the limit test for heavy metal. 2. Method B -; • Use for the substance which do not give clear colourless solution under specific condition. Procedure-; Now in both Nesslar cylinder add 10 ml freshly prepared H2S and stan...

 ✯Unit - 1st✯  Method of expressing concerntration; 1. Normality (N) ;  • Normality is described as the number of gram or moles equivalent of solute present in one ltr. Of a solution. When we say equivalent, it is the number of moles of reactive units in a compound. Where is,  N= Normality WB = weight of solute Gewb = gram equivalent weight of solute. Vs = volume of solution 2. Molarity;  • Molarity is the amount of a substance in a certain volume of solution, molarity is defined as the moles of a solute per ltr. Of a solution. M= Molarity Gmmb = gram molecules mass of solute

  ✯Acid base titration✯ ✷    It is a quantitative analysis of acid and base through this process, an acid or base of know concentration neutralizes an acid or base of  unknown concentration. ✷ The titration process can be monitored by visual indication, pH electrode or both. Equivalence point indicate the exactly neutralized acid base concentration. ◍Equivalence point ; • It's the point at which the titrant has exactly neutralized the mi acid or base in the unknown analyte. Types of Acid-base Titrations; 1. Titration of strong acid -strong base  2. Titration of weak acid - strong base  3. Titration of strong acid- weak base 4. Titrations of weak acid - weak base

    ✯Pharmaceutical analysis✯ ◍ Estimation of calcium gluconate ;  ✷ Principle; • Complexometric titration is a form of volumetric analysis in which the formation of a coloured complex is used to indicate the end point of a titration. Complexometric Titrations are particularly useful for the determination of a mixture of different metal ion in solution.                    ( Principle same as record)

           ✯ Unit - 4th✯               ☆ Special senses☆ ✷ Sensory organe are those receptor organe which receive the stimulus and send signal to brain. ✷ There are basically 5 sensory organe are present in our body and each organe recieve different stimulus. (a.) Nose → smell  (b.) Ear → sound  (c .) Skin → touch  (d.) Eye → vision  (e.) Tongue → taste                             ☆Tongue ☆ ✷ Tongue is a smooth muscular elastic organ which is  present in mouth cavity and hanged from throat region and freelly movable. ✷ It recieves the signal of taste or gustation and sends tothe brain. ✷   It is identified basically mainly 4 type of taste  ( Sweet , saline , sour , bitter and one new taste unami)

             ✿ Unit -4th✿                           ✯ PNS ✯ ☆Nervous system☆ ✷ Nervous system is the central control unit of the body which regulates and control the function of all organe of the body. ◍Classification of Nervous system; 1. Central nervous system. (a.) Brain. (b.) Spinal card. 2. Peripheral Nervous system. (a.) Cranial nerve. (b.) Spinal nerve. 3). Autonomic nervous system. (a). Sympathetic  (b.) Parasympathetic.   Spinal cord structure

   ≦ Lymphatic system≧ ✷ Lymph are the filtered product of blood which contain large amount of WBC and small amount of plasma. ✷ This system includes lymph , lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic organs and lymphatic capillaries. ✷ This system was first introduced by  gasproaseli in 1627. ✷ When blood flows in blood vessels then due to construction of blood vessels it's WBC part is driend out and collected in a separate vessel lymphatic vessels.  

                Unit-3rd Body fluid & lymphatic system; Body fluid; * Animal body is consist of large amount of water , about 60-70 % water is present in human body of it's total weight. * These liquid are viscus , colloidal, and contain large amount of Nutritional material so, It's also called body fluid. * Body fluid can be divided into two main categories;   (a.) Intracellular fluid—( 67%) *  The Fluid which is present inside the cell in the form cytoplasm, neucleoplasm , stroma and matrix is called intracellular fluid. (b) Extracellular fluid —(33%) * The body the body fluid which is  present outside the cell is called extracellular fluid. 

      -History of microbiology- 1. Antony van leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) *  Antony van leeuwenhoek (1677) could see them in simple (one lens) microscope. *  He discoverd major classes of bacteria ( spheres , rods and spirals ) , protozoa,algae , yeast , erythrocytes, spermatozoa and tha capillary circulation. Spontaneous generation of organization-(abiogenesis); * The theory of spontaneous generation states the the microbes arise automatically in decomposing organic matter. Golden Era of microbiology (1860-1910); * Golden Era of microbiology started with the work of Louis' Pasteur and Robert koch . Louis' Pasteur (1822-1895) * He investigated number of aspect such as he showed that boiled medium could remain  clear in a "swan-neck" flask. open to the air through a sinous horizontal tube  in which dust particle would settle as air re-entered the cooling vessel. * Pasture (1857) became interested in the fermentation product and observed different kind of ...

              Unit-1st (Introduction, classification, history of microbiology) Microbiology= Micro +   bio +   logy                                ↓            ↓            ↓                             Small.    Living.  Science Father of microbiology= Louis' Pasteur Introduction; * Microbiology is a branch of science deal with structure, function ,classes and economics importance of microorganism. * Simply microorganism is the study of microorganism which are the living organism of microscope size. Micro-organisms; * Microorganism cannot be seen by naked eye (less than 1mm in diameter) can only seen by the help of microscope. Types of micro-organisms; 1. Viruses. 2. Bacteria 3. Fungi. 4. Algae. 5. Protozoa. *...

 Anatomy and physiology of human body- Anatomy of human body- • Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body . The human body has four limbs ( Two arms and two legs ) , a head and a neck which connects to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone abd cartilage, surrounded by fat , muscle, connective tissue, organs and other structures. The spine at the back of skeleton.         Scope of anatomy and physiology • The various branch of anatomy as following- (1.) Embryology(भूर्ण विज्ञान) • It is the study of first eight weeks of development after fertilization of human eggs. (2) Developmental biology ( विकासात्मक विज्ञान) • It's the study the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death. (3.) Cell biology ( कोशिका विज्ञान) • It's the study of cellular structure and function of the cell. (4.) Histology ( उत्तक विज्ञान) • It's the study of microscopic structure of tissue. (5.) Gross anatomy ...

 Pharmaceutical analysis                             Unit -1st  { Introduction, methods, scopes} • Introduction-  Pharmaceutical analysis is a branch of pure chemistry which involve identification,  purification, separation and quantification of different kind of sample. Sample can be synthetic pharmaceutical ingredient which involve different active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) or dosage forms/formulation and can be natural product as biomolecules like protein from animal or phyto- chemical which obtain from plants.

          //  Redox Titrations \\ • A Redox titration is a type of titration in which titrant and titrand react through and oxidation reduction reaction. • The end point of a Redox titration is detected by using indicators. Principles of Redox titration; Reduction—  • The subtances  can undergo reduction by followin. • The addition of hydrogen. •The removal of oxygen. • The acceptance of electrons. Example- fe³+→fe ²+  Oxidation— • Addition of oxygen. • Removal of hydrogen. • Loss/ donation of electrons. Example- fe²+ → fe³+ Oxidising agents;  •An oxidising agent is a chemical species that causes that other reactant in a redox reaction to be oxidized, and it is always reduced in the process. Example- Ag + , O², O³